
The STORY of 
CUBAN SUGAR 



^SSS 




" Stand" of Mature Carte 



The '^rOKY of 
CUBAN SUGAR 



PHILIP KEEP REYNOLDS 



Published by 

United Fruit Company 

BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS 
1924 






Cori KicHi' I 924 

liV 
UnITEIJ 1<'rMT CoMI'ANV 



;ClA7h2»«ls 



MAR ^/I924 




Introductory ^A(ote 



7 HIS pamphlet has been compiled in response to numerous requests 
for general intormation regarding the Cuban sugar industry. As nearly 
all Cuban raw sugar is shipped to refineries, principally those on the Atlantic 
seaboard of the United States, there would be a decided lack in any account 
that did not include some description ot refining operations. The subject, 
therefore, is treated under three main heads: I "The Plantation in Cuba"; 
II "The Factory or 'Central' in Cuba"; III "The Refinery in the United 
States." The description ot the industry is based mainly on the operations 
of the United Fruit Company and those of its subsidiary, the Revere Sugar 
Refinery. 

It is not generally realized that the United Fruit Company, most widely 
known for its banana activities and steamship transportation, is the best 
example in the world today of a self-contained sugar enterprise. It owns 
in Cuba some 89,000 acres of growing cane, as well as undeveloped land 
suitable for additional planting; 340 miles of railway; and at the seaboard 
in Oriente Province two large modern sugar mills. Central Boston and 
Central Preston, each having a rated daily average capacity for grinding 
7,000 tons of cane. With the exception of the grinding units, these two 
factories are electrically operated throughout and represent a combined 
maximum annual output of 1,400,000 bags (200,000 tons) of raw sugar. 
Adjacent to Central Preston the Company has recently erected a distillery, 
complete in every detail, for converting the final molasses of the sugar mill 
into alcohol-ether motor fuel, to be used in internal-combustion engines in- 
stead of gasoline. In some respects, this fuel is superior to gasoline. 

The sugar fleet of the United Fruit Company comprises four modern 
oil-burning steamships. Each of these vessels has a carrying capacity of 
24,000 bags, is equipped with a 20-ton lift for handling heavy cargo, has 



accommodations for six passengers and can develop a 10J2 knot speed. 
This fleet transports the Company's raw sugar directly to the Revere 
Refinery, situated on deep water in the Charlestown district ot Boston, and 
on the return trip to Cuba carries the necessary suppHes for the two Sugar 
Divisions of the Company. 

The Revere plant, which has a daily refined-sugar output of 4,000 
barrels, embodies the most up-to-date construction, the latest mechanical 
improvements and the highest engineering efficiency in sugar-refining opera- 
tion. It has direct rail connections whereby its product, of unexcelled 
quality, is distributed throughout the New England states and elsewhere. 
It also owns and operates a modern fireproof cooperage plant which has a 
daily output of 5,000 barrels and 4,500 wooden cases. 

In the compilation of this work, the Author has purposely av^oided statis- 
tics and, wherever possible, technical language. Throughout he has en- 
deavored to treat the subject broadly, yet in sufficient detail to present an 
accurate picture of the processes which mark the progress of a stalk of sugar 
cane from the field, through the mill and the refinery, to its final state — re- 
fined sugar. 

The Author takes this ojijiortunity to express his appreciation of the 
assistance received in the jirejiaration of this article from the agricultural 
and the factorv staff's in Cuba as well as from the rcfinerv staflF at Boston. 



Qontents 

PART \~The Plantation in Cuba 

Page 

History ij 

The Plant 15 

The MoDERiV Plantation 18 

Preparation of the Land for Planting 19 

Planting 21 

Cultivation 25 

Crops 25 

Harvesting 28 

Transporting the Cane 30 

"Colono" Cane 32 

Factors of Yield 33 

PART \\ The Swsar Factory or ^'CentraF' in Cuba 

o 

Usual Method of Manufacture 3-7 

Chemical Controi -y-j 

Factors of Efficiency 3-7 

Delivery of the Cane 39 

Extraction of the Juice ■. . 39 

Clarification 44 

Evaporation, and Formation of the Crystals 48 

Separation of the Crystals from the Molasses . 51 

Bagging and Storing 51 

Marketing 52 

"Blackstrap" or Final Molasses 52 

PART III The Refinery in the United States 

Basis of Purchase ^5 

Import Duty <;j 

Discharging the Sugar Cargo j6 

Usual Method of Refining 59 

Melt House 60 

Filter House 63 

Pan House 65 

Finishing House 66 

Cooperage 67 

Marketing 68 

Delivery 68 

Disposal of Empty Raw-Sugar Bags 68 

Conclusion 69 



Bibliography 



71 



Illustrations 



"Stand" of Mature Cane Krontispiece 

PAin^ \ — T/ie Pla7itation in Cuba 

Page 

BrRMXG Underbrish ox New Land 15 

Cane Cut as "Seed" for Pi.antinc; 16 

Making Hill Readv ior "Seed" 16 

Slipping "Seed" into CiRorxD 16 

Cane Four Months Old 18 

Cane One Year Old — Sixteen Stalks from One "Seed" 19 

Plowing with Oxen (2 \'iews) 20 

S'lEAM Plow — "Kxifinc;" the Soil --.23 

'I'rac'for Pi.owinc; 22 

Weeding by Means of Hoes 24 

Cutting Cane 24 

A I'l'iuRE Cane-Ci'i'I'er 25 

Hafiling Cane in Old-Stvle Cart 26 

Hal'ling Cane in New-Style Cart (Cateri-illar) 26 

Hauling Cane with Gasoline Tractor 26 

Transferring Caxe from Carts 10 Cars — Sin i-l. eg Hoist 28 

Transferring Cane frclm Carts to Cars — \\\.\ H(hst 28 

Herd of Steers Rrf:i) on Plantation 29 

'l\ PE OF Pl.ANTAI ION LoCOMOTIXE BaLDWIN jO 

Train of Loaded Caxe Cars 3^ 

.Administration Hfildixg 32 

Hospital 33 

I<'arm Overseer's IIouse 34 

Lakorers' Barracks I<',rected r>Y CoMi' \XY 34 

Native Huts 34 

PART II I'/ic Sinrcu- Mill or'-'Ccfitrur^ i/i Cuba 

Cenfral Presfox 36 

Cenfrai. Boston 3^ 

Lfs Clubhooe, Church and Cottages for Mf.ch\nics 38 

Switching Caxe (. ars af the Mill Yard 40 

L XI.OADlXf, "SiDE-DuMI'" CaXE CaR 4I 



IllustriU'ioris (Continued) 



Page 

Cane Bein'g Co.weved to the Crushers axd the First "iMii.l" 42 

Cane Mat in Foreground Leaving Second Crusher 43 

Tandem with Double Crushers and Three "Mills" 44 

Four-Unit Dorr Clarifiers 46 

Two Sugar Ships at Presion Wharf 48 

PART \\\-'The Refinery in the United States 

Revere Sijgar Refinery 54 

Unloading Raw Sugar at Refinery 56 

Sampling Raw Sugar at Refinery 56 

Weighing Raw Sugar on U. S. Cjo\er\mfnt Scales 57 

Raw Sugar in the Warehouse 58 

Power Plant 59 

The Laboratory 60 

Vacuum Pans — Where the Sugar Crystals are I'"ormed 61 

"Purging" THE Sugar IN the Centrifugals 61 

The T'lNisHED Product — Packed in Barrels, Bags and Carions 62,63 

Loading Truck with Sugar ■ 64 

Battery of Trucks Loaded with Sugar 65 

Cooperage Plant— Exterior AND Lnterior 66,67 

Diagram of Refinery Process (Condensed Flow-Sheet) 70 



Part I 



The T^lantation in Quha 



The Story <?/ Cuban Sugar 

By 
PHJLIP KEEP REYNOLDS 

'^ssiitiuil to ihr ■Frcsuiriit of thfViiited Friiil Qompany 



Part I 
The T^laritatiori in Quha 

History COUGAR cane is generally believed to have originated 
i \ in India, hut, according to some authorities, it is 
also indigenous to the South Pacific Islantls. No 
reference to it is made in either the Old or the New Testament. It is claimed 
that the first historical mention of sugar cane occurs in certain Chinese 
writings of the eighth century B.C., where the fact is recorded that the 
knowledge of sugar cane was derived from India. That it was considered 
of great value by the Chinese is shown by their manuscripts ot about 200 
B.C., but it is generally held by the best authorities that the secret ot ex- 
tracting crystals from the sugar-cane juice was not discovered until a much 
later period. Alexander the Great, more than three centuries before Christ, 
it is recorded, on the banks of the Indus River gathered the "honey-bearing 
reed" and took it back to Europe.* 

The discovery of the art of making sugar from cane is credited to the 
Bengalese and, as long ago as the third or fourth century alter Christ, travelers 
from India brought back news of "Indian salt." The name "sugar" is 
derived from the Sanskrit word "shakara" or "sarkara," which signifies 
small grains. It is possible to trace from the fifth century the spread ot cane 
sugar into Persia, Arabia and Egypt. Arabian doctors gave sugar in their 
medicines and Moslem armies included it in their supplies. It was introduced 
into Spain by the Moors early in the eighth century. 

When in the Orient, the Crusaders acquired a liking tor sugar which 
resulted in the development of trade in this commodity between northern 
Europe and Venice, Genoa and Pisa. During the Middle Ages, Venice was 

* "Something about Sugar," bv George M. Rolph. 

[Page 13] 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 

^ — -^ ^ 

the chief sugar-distributing centre in Europe. One ot the earliest references 
to sugar in Great Britain mentions the shipment of one hundred thousand 
pounds to London in 1,^,19, by Tomasso Loredano, a \'enetian merchant. 
About 1 420 the Portuguese took sugar cane to Madeira, then to the Azores 
and hater to the Cape ^'erde Ishmds; at about this time the Spaniards intro- 
duced it into the Canaries. 

According to Humboldt, sugar cane was unknown m America and the 
adjacent islands before the advent of tiie Spaniards. It is of particular in- 
terest to note that, following the tlisco\'ery of America, sugar cane was 
brought to the New World antl its production there, particularly in the 
West Indian Islands, increased to such an extent that the sugars from the 
plantations of Maileira, the CapeA'erde Islands and the Canaries were ev'en- 
tually driven from the world's markets. In 1751, the Jesuits took sugar cane 
from Santo Dommgo to Louisiana. 

In 1747, sugar cane was jilanted by the French in Mauritius, and some 
years later in Reunion, nearby; sugar made in these two islands was sent 
to Europe about the end of the eighteenth century. In Java, sugar cane 
has been grown since a very remote period; it was probably brought there 
originally by Chinese traders. There is e\'idence that the Chinese also 
introtluced it intt) the Philii^jiine Islands, as the names of the imjilements and 
methotls used there distincth' point to Chinese origin. The cultivation of 
sugar cane in Australia was begun some fifty years ago; it was introduced 
into tlie Fiji Islands in 1880.* 

When Captain Cook, in 1778, discovered the Hawaiian Islands, he found 
sugarcane there growing luxuriantly; this fact is regarded by some authori- 
ties as signifying that it is indigenous to Polynesia. 

Sugar cane was introduced into Cuba by the Spaniards as early as the 
sixteenth century. In the year 1760 the sugar production of the Island was 
about 4,400 tons, and in 1894 it had increased tcj 1,054,000 tons. During the 
long struggle for independence waged by the Cubans against the Spaniards, 
the sugar industry suffered severely, many of the plantations and mills being 
ruined. As a result, tiie sugar output of the Island was, for the time being, 
materially reduced. f Cuba completed its record crop of approximately 

* Rolph deals exli.iustivelv with the early history of sugar. 

t The Cuban crop, as noted above, reached its maximum ot former davs, 1,054,000 tons, in 1894, and 
then tell off rapidly, owing to the Cuban insurrection and consequent destruction of property, with a 
minimum crop ot 212,000 tons in iSg". Later, under the Reciprocity Treaty with the United States, 
the sugar production ot the Island recovered. 

[ P .-1 g e 14] 



The S t t> k V of C i' i? a n S u ci a r 



^- 



-hO' 






■.,; t^lts 



Hhj^miii^' 









'^ii£X± 



Burning Underbrush on Nck- Land 



4,000,000 tons of raw sugar in 191Q. It is today the largest single source ot the 
world's supply of cane sugar and for this reason is often termed the "World's 
Sugar Bowl." In the Island at the present time there are nearly 200 mills, 
many of which are of the most modern type and do exceedingly efficient work. 
It is very interesting to trace the introduction ot sugar into the civilized 
world. At first, it was regarded as a curiosity and was presented to royalty; 
then it came into use as a medicine; later, it became a luxury; and now it is 
a necessity. It is only within the past thirty years that the food value, or 
energy-producing power, ot sugar has been appreciated.* 

"The T^layit C^UGJR cane is a member of the grass family, known 
i \ botanically as Sacchaj'nm officinaritm. It grows in all 
tropical and sub-tropical countries and, although 
attaining its best development in the lower levels, it can be cultivated on 
elevations of 4,000 feet. A hot, moist climate with copious rains previous to 
planting and in the growing season, and cool, dry weather during the ripening 
period, are essential to the production of sugar cane to the best advantage. 
An annual rainfall of about sixtv inches is considered desirable. 



'Food Products from Afar," by C. H. S. and H. S. Bailey. 



[Page I 5 1 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 



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n. 




The sugar-cane plant consists of roots, 
stalks, leaves and flowers. The roots, slender 
and numerous, grow lateralK' rather than 
downward, and vary in length from eight- 
een to thirt\-si\ inches. From the original 
rootstock, several shoots develop, forming 
tinalh' a hill or stool. Extending the entire 
length of the cane stalk, joints or "nodes" 
occur at distances of from four to eight inches 









i^i-:-;:'.: 



Ki'-Jti::*: -a^'-i^i.-: 




L'pPER \'iE\v: Mtikiii\; liill Rcuiiy Jfir " Sicd 
Centre View: (unic Cut as " Seed" for Phuiting 

apart, five inches being the average interva 
in a good growing season. Kach section be- 
tween these joints is called an "internode." 
The top section of the cane, termed "cogollo," 
contains but little sucroseand is unfit for sugar 
making.* From each node grows a single leaf, 
which usually falls from the stalk as the cane 

* Sucrose is the chemical term for pure cane suaar. 
[I'age i6] 






nppnig " Seed" niiu 



The Story of Cuban S i' g a r 

matures. At the top of the cane arises a cluster ot long ribbon-like leaves, from 
the centre of which springs a slemler stem bearing the flowers; these torm a 
large tassel of a light reddish-gray color. 

Along the stalk, running lengthwise, are fibrous strands serving as chan- 
nels to conduct the water and the plant food from the roots to the leaves. 
The preliminary development of the sucrose in the plant takes place in the 
leaves, where, through the action of sunlight, carbohydrates are formed. This 
partially elaborated material then passes down into the stalk and is gradually 
converted into sucrose. 

The height attained by sugar cane varies considerably, according to 
the richness of the soil, the rainfall during the growing season, the amount 
of cultivation received, and the number of crops gathered from the same 
rootstock, or stool. A period of drought or of heavy rains leaves its imprint 
unmistakably upon those sections of the cane that are in process of forma- 
tion. Drought causes them to remain short and stunted; heavy rains make 
them grow long and rank. Fully matured cane in Cuba, grown under normal 
conditions, stands in the fields at an average height of from seven to twelve 
feet, although it sometimes grows as high as twenty feet. A field of young sugar 
cane resembles a field of corn; later, when the cane is full)' grown and the 
leaves have attained their normal size, this resemblance is much less marked. 

There are a great many varieties of sugar cane, but that almost univer- 
sally found in Cuba is the Crystalina, constituting more than ninety per cent 
of all the cane grown in the Island.* 

Sugar cane will grow in a great variety of soils. The most suitable is a 
clay loam, which, while retaining moisture, remains sufficiently open to 
permit of proper aeration and drainage. Potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen 
and lime are the principal soil elements required. 

* 1 11 his hook," Cane Suaar, " Noel Deerr gives some tliirty pages to a discussion of cane varieties. Classi- 
fications have been made according to the colorof the stalk, shape of eye,colorot pith and other physi- 
cal characteristics, as well as according to the geographical origin of the varieties. In all these methods 
the line of demarcation is not always distinct, particularly in the case of canes produced by breeding. 

The original cane brought to the West Indies was of the variety since known as Creole. Later, 
other varieties, known as Otaheite and Batavian, were introduced and named for the islands of their 
origin. .\ Batavian cane known as Crystalina has been so largely developed that it is now the principal 
varietv in Cuba, and produces most of the world's cane sugar. 

It has been found that desirable qualities in cane can be developed by cross-breeding. The experi- 
ment stations in this manner have developed hundreds of seedlings, which they have designated by 
letters and numbers rather than by name. This development has been accompanied by a systematic 
study of characteristics, the object being the production of a cane which will grow well, which will 
be resistant to disease and drought and which, when brought to the mill, can be readily worked to 
produce a high yield of sugar. So far as Cuba is concerned, seedlings have not been developed to a 
point where thev are a commercial factor. 

[Page 17) 



1^ H E S 



r u R V 



of C r 



B A N 



8 I' G A R 



<*:r- 



77;c -JM'oc/er/j 
T'la?itatioji 



-M^ inv( 



-5o. 



'//£ number and the magnitude ot the operations 
involved in preparing and equipping a large and 
efficient sugar plantation in Cuba are not usually 
comprehended by any one whose basis ot comparison may be general farming 

operations in the United States. 
\\ ithina tewyears' time a tropi- 
cal wiKlerness is transformed 
into a cultivated tract, with 
ample accommodations tor the 
housing and medical care of the 
army of laborers and other em- 
\, )iloyces. In additicjii, transpor- 
tation facilities on a large scale 
arc jiroxitletl. 

The land is first thorough- 
1\' examined b)- experts who de- 
citle regarding its suitability for 
the culti\ation of cane. When 
selected, the lanil is surveyed 
and IS laid out in sections con- 
duci\e to the convenient ap- 
poi^t ion merit and efficient 
handling of the work to be done 
later, aiul with a \-iew to keep- 
ing )iroper records of all jiroiUic- 
tion ami other costs pertaining 
to each section. 

These prehminaries are fol- 
lowed by the work of clearing 
the land of trojiical growth, 
the digging of main ilrainage 
ditches and the actual plant- 
ing. Then, too, the sugar mill 
and the emplo\-ees' houses are erected; railroads are constructed; and food- 
stuffs and merchandise are made available at moderate cost. Likewise, 
hospital treatment is furnished in case of sickness or accident and the general 
sanitarv condition of the jilantation is maintained; in short, all means of 
general and emergency care of the personnel are atlequately established. 

[Page I S 1 




Ciuie I'oi'.r Mouths Old 



T 



H E 



Story of Cub a n S u (; a r 



-05- 



'■'Preparation of Y'^ ^'^*^ preparation of virgin land for planting, the 

,/ p Jr.. I trees and underbrush are first cut down. All good, 
the 1 a?ia [Of § . , . , , 1 r 1 -i r 

,V. -\ -^ hard timber is taken out and saved tor Iniilding 

i la?ltlflg purposes, and a certain portion of the other wood 

is cut up and delivered' to the 
mill for fuel. The remaining 
timber and brush, which can- 
not be utilized in any way, are 
allowed to dry out and are then 
burned; whatever part may 
resist the first burning is gath- 
ered up in piles and burned 
again, until the land is gen- 
erally cleared. The utmost pre- 
caution is taken to prevent 
burning cinders, carried by 
the wind, from setting fire to 
standing cane. The ground, al- 
though containing roots antl 
some stumps, is now ready for 
planting. 

Accidental fires, due to 
sparks from locomotives and 
to other causes, constitute the 
most serious menace to grow- 
ing cane. To minimize this risk, 
fire lines are established, with 
an average width ot twenty 
yards. In many instances these 
fire lines are planted with sweet 
potatoes and other green veg- 
etables, which not only furnish 
food for the laborers, but also 
in themselves provide more or less protection against fire. 

The preparation ot the land for replanting is effected by means of 
steam plowing, tractor plowing or bull plowing, the fields usually being 
first burned over. The expense attached to the steam-plow method restricts 
its use to large areas, of one hundred rosas (177 acres) or over, but this 




Cane One Year 0/J — Sixteen Stalks Jro»i One "'Seed" 



The Story of C r b a n Sugar 



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plow, if properly handletl, is very efficietU. Tractors are usetl to adxantage 
in small areas, but it delays are to be avoided, all logs and stumps must first 
be removed. Bull plows can be used on small areas with two or more yoke 
of bulls or oxen to a plcjw. After the various plowing operations, harrows 
are used further to puh'erize the surface of the soil. 














Ploiviuz 'ii'ilh (Jxcn 



[Page 2 o 1 



T HE Story of C u b a n S v g a r 
^ -_^ . ^ ^-^iV 

T'laJltinor I HE methods ot planting cane in Cuba vary con- 
-»- siderably, as do also the distances between the 
rows. Planting seven feet apart in the row, with 
a space of seven feet between rows, is the practice of the United Fruit Com- 
pany in new lands. The ground should receive not less than three inches of 
rainfall previous to planting. The usual seasons for planting cane are spring 
and tall. 

Except tor cross-breeding and selection work, the flower seeds are not 
used in planting. It is often difficult to obtain a good "stand" from them 
and, when they do germinate, the resulting plants are likely to vary in type 
to a considerable extent. This latter characteristic, however, is turned to 
good account in some experimental stations in the cross-breeding of de- 
sirable varieties and the selection ot the most promising plants to propagate 
in the regular manner. Superior varieties have been obtained in this way. 

Ordinary held propagation or planting is effected by means of cuttings 
from a stalk of mature cane, each cutting having usually three buds or 
"eyes," corresponding to the eye of the potato, located at the nodes. These 
cuttings are called "seed." The field of cane to be used for "seed" purposes 
is selected for its proper age, vigor of growth and general freedom from 
disease and insect pests.* It is most important that only healthv plants be 
used. The best seed for planting consists of cuttings from plant cane not 
over twelve months old. The cane selected is cut down, and in the same 
field it is prepared for use by being cut into sections of not less than two 
joints — preferably three. The end of the section cut should be about one inch, 
on each end, away from the joint or " eye." Any cuttings which have poor or 
broken eyes, or which show evidences of borer injury or disease, are rejected. 

In the cutting of a stalk of cane for seed, the upper portions below the 
"cogollo" are usually considered superior, while the lowest section, par- 
ticularly if it shows much rooting, is generally rejected. In the transporta- 
tion of the selected seeci to the field where it is to be planted, great care is 
necessary to avoid injury to the "eyes" from handling or from exposure to 
the sun. The seed should be planted not later than three days after cutting. 

* Deerr devotes thirty-six pages to the subject of diseases and pests of the cane, which are many, and 
which are liable to attack the roots, stalk and leaves. 

Among the diseases may be mentioned the Mosaic or mottling disease, the rind disease, the red rot of 
the stalk and the "pineapple" disease. Of the insect pests, the moth stalk-borer is conspicuous because 
of the holes it bores in the stalk. The damage it causes, while not very serious in itself, induces fungous 
infection and subsequent deterioration of the sugar content. Frequently, caterpillars cause considerable 
damage by eating the leaves of young cane. 

[ P .T g e 2 I ] 



The S t o k V of Cuban Sugar 



.05- 



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Steam Ploiv (laki)i'^ on ivn/t'r) 
B\ means oj a steel cable the ploiv or k>iijcr is draivu hack and forth 




Tractor Ploivni" 



Pa 



^- 



Thk Story of Cuban Sugar 



-So- 




" Knifing" the Soil 
between these two powerful engines stationed at opposite ends oj the field 

In the planting ot new land, the work must he done with a j-iick mattox 
or a sharply pointed stick, hecause ot the stumps and roots that remain 
even after the usual burning. The outer edge ot the field is measured off 
with a tape line tor planting, and stakes are set at proper distances as guides. 
A check wire is used in the lining and in the distributing of the seed. In the 
planting of the cane, a stick is thrust in a slanting direction into the ground 
to make a hole, into which one or two pieces of cane are inserted, generally 
with the upper end not more than two inches under the ground. The earth 
is then packed tightly around the seed by pressing with the foot. 

In the replanting of a cultivated field, alight plow is used to trace the fur- 
rows in which the cane is to be planted. These furrows, or rows, are usually six 
feet apart, instead of seven as in the case of the planting of new land, and the 
cane cuttings ("seed") are generally placed in the row six feet apart. The 
proper interval for planting varies according to the soil, so that throughout 
Cuba are found such variations as cuttings end to entl, every twelve or twenty 
inches apart, two rows of cuttings in a furrow — and many other different 
practices. The cuttings are laid in the furrow by hand; then a light plow is 
run alongside the furrow, and the earth is turned over to cover the cane 
from four to six inches deep. 

[Page 2 3 I 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 



•og- 



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U'ceding In Menus oj llocs 







Ct(tti>ig Cane 



[Page 2 . 



The S t o k ^' of Cuban S u g a r 



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Cultivation T'F the ground is damp and in good condition, the 
/ cane may be expected to show itself above the sur- 
face about two weeks after planting. Weeds, how- 
ever, soon make their appearance, and the work ot destroying them should 
not be delayed. The operation of weeding must 
be repeated as often as necessary until the cane 
leaves have grown over so that they completely 
shade the ground and prevent the sun from pene- 
trating through to the soil. In new lands this cul- \J' 
tivating is usually done by means of hoes. ?^| 

In the case of replanted fields, after they have % ," 
been cleaned by hand for the first time, the weeds 
are destroyed by running a cultivator, a light plow 
or a disc harrow between the rows of cane. Mules, 
tractors and oxen are usetl in this work. 



Crops 







.1 Future Ccuic-Citttcr 



'HE first crop, calleci " plant 
cane," usually takes from 
twelve to fifteen months to 
mature. Spring cane, however, planted in May, 
is sometimes cut the following April, or eleven months after planting. After 
plant cane is harvested, new shoots develop from the original rootstock, and 
form what is called the second crop, or "first ratoons." These shoots may 
be cut after about twelve months' growth, and the operation may be re- 
peated a year later, given the right kind of growing weather. However, 
if enough cane is available for the mill so that the ratoons may be allowed 
from fourteen to eighteen months of growth, they will give a much better 
sucrose yield. The question of maturity, as regards each particular field, is 
something to be ccjnsidered individually by those in charge of cutting; no 
set rule can be given to indicate definitely the exact month in which canes 
should be harvested. Close observation of maturity, chemical analysis of 
average samples, amount of cane available for the crop, possibility of pro- 
viding "stand over" cane for beginning the next crop, — all these are factors 
that enter into the final decision as to harvesting. 

Leaving uncut cane too long in the field tends to start a series of new 
shoots, called "suckers," which are offspring of the parent plant, and which 
sometimes grow to the size of the parent plant itself, if harvesting is delayed 
too long. While these well-developed suckers produce tonnage, their sugar 

[Page 2 5] 



T H E S T O R Y of C U 1! A N 6 l G A R 



^= 



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mJ^. 



^IvJifl^ ti^ \ 




llaidbi'^ C.auc ai Xi-iv-S/y/t' Cuirt 
yCatcrpillar) 

content is \'cry low. Further, 
there is a hea\ y accumulation 
of (lead leaves from over-ma- 
tured cane which increases the 
difficulty of har\esting. \\ hen 
cane becomes too old, it dries 
upantl the sucrose tends to be- 
come uuerted.* 







. .I'^^hi 



IxsKRT: Hdiiliiix Cinic in ()!(l-Stylc Cart 

Lower \'iE\v: IIaiilin\( Cintc n-ith Gasoline Tractor 



* Inversion ot sucrose is the changing of sucrose into glucose through processes of fermentation. 
[Pace 2 6 1 



The Story of Cuban S i' c; a r 

•og ^ -^ .V 

When the cane is \ery young, its sucrose content is extremely low, being 
utilized in meeting the needs ot the growing plant. When cane ot these two 
extremes is harvested, the yield in sugar at the mill is less than would have 
been the case had such cane been harvested at the right time, and the opera- 
tion means smaller financial returns. 

The number of successive "ratoon" crops depends upon the quality of 
the soil, varying from six to eight on lands ot medium quality to considerably 
more on the newer lands. Virgin lands, from which the forests have been cut, 
produce the heaviest cane, although it is not usually as rich in sucrose as that 
produced on the old lands. In Cuba, a yield of from i^^^ to 50 tons ot cane 
per acre can be obtained from virgin lands, and sometimes even more, 
whereas the average yield for the Island probably does not exceed 18 to 
20 tons per acre. When the ratoon crops become so poor that a reasonable 
profit cannot be obtained from continuing their cultivation, the land is 
either devoted to other crops, temporarily or permanently, or immediately 
or subsequently replanted in cane, according to the soil constituents and 
other factors. 

As cane lands become old and the yields decrease, the question ot ter- 
tilizers and their comparative values torces itselt upon the planter's attention. 
While many commercial fertilizers are on the market, Cuba, particularly the 
section comprising the Provinces ot Oriente and Camaguey, has not as yet 
developed the practice of fertilization to any considerable extent. It is 
much behind other countries in this respect. Because of an abundance of 
available virgin lands, it has heretofore been the practice, especially in these 
two provinces, to make use of new lands rather than to replant, cultivate 
and fertilize exhausted areas. Since these woodlands are now scarce, cul- 
tivation and fertilization must become important factors if the present 
Cuban sugar production is to be maintained. 

At the beginning and the close ot the crop season, the sugar content of 
the cane is usually the lowest. It is always the endeavor to grind the cane 
during its period ot maximum sugar content, although, where large cane areas 
are involved, it is sometimes necessary to begin grinding earlier, and continue 
later, than the sucrose content would seem to warrant. In the western and 
middle parts of the Island, the crop season generally starts the latter part of 
November or early in December and plantations in these sections finish their 
grinding — at the very latest — by the first of June, as the rainy season usually 
starts about the middle of May. In the eastern section ot the Island, how- 
ever, grinding usually begins the latter part of December or early in January 

[Page 27] 



The Story of C i' b a n Sugar 



-05- 



-5«. 




^jj^ 



TrtDisJiiTiHi:^ Cane Jroui Carts to Cars — Stlf-Lci Hoist 

and is continufd until July -in the case ot a tew mills, until September or 
October. Weather conditions in Cuba, which vary consitlerably from year 
to year, as well as in different parts ot the Island in a single year, affect the 
length ot the grinding season. 



Hcirvesthig 



r 7y^///^.V the 
I/m/ cane is 




ready tor 
harvesting, it is cut by hand at the 
base of the stalk, t^ush with the 
ground, a long knite or cleaver be- 
ing used.* The leaves and the green 
top are then severed ami the stalk 
is cut into lengths ot trom three to 
four feet and thrown into piles. f 



* Cane is cut at the ground level tor the rea- 
son that the lower portion ot the stalk is rich 
in sucrose, and further, it the end ot the stalk 
were left above ground, anti there should he anv 
" eyes " in it, thev would lie likely t( 1 sprout and Trail sfcrrhi;:; Cane front Carls to Cars -/ lUi Hunt 
impair the fertility of the stool. 

t The top is removed at a jioint between the end of the solid cane and the beginning of the soft, 
Crowina: portion. Inspection ot any cane stalk will reatiilv reveal, even to the uninitiated, where 
the solul cane ends. 



' iiSas^f^ 



(Page 28] 



The Stor\- of Cuban Sucjar 



-<»§- 



'5^ 




Herd oj Steers Bred on Plantation 

The leaves and the green tops are left in the field. They conserve the 
moisture in the ground, and form an excellent mulch that aids in preventing 
the growth of weeds and grass until such time as the new cane afi^ords shade 
for the ground. This mulch, when it decays, has some value as fertilizer. 
The green tops also afford an excellent fodder for the cattle and constitute 
their principal food during the crop season. 

It is essential to economical operation that there be proper supervision 
of the cane cutters to ensure proper cutting and loading of the cane and to 
prevent the loading of the top portion, trash and leaves. Otherwise, the fac- 
tcjry pays for this trash — which has no sugar value — and carries the addi- 
tional and superfluous burden of eliminating these impurities in the manu- 
facturing process. 

The operation of harvesting the cane, as well as its cultivation, is usually 
handled on a contract basis, the contractors having direct charge ot the 
laborers, and their lodgings, food and wages. The mill settles directly with 
these contractors, but at all times exercises close supervision over their work 
and the treatment accorded their men. The mill actively assists the contrac- 
tors in obtaining their supply of laborers, and erects the lodgings, called 
"barracones," for the men. It is the general practice tor the mills to supply 
some of the bulls and carts used in hauling the cane. In the case of the United 
Fruit Company, practically all of the carts and more than halt of the live 
stock used for this purpose are furnished by the company. 

[Page 29] 



«05- 



T H E Story of Cuban Sugar 



-5«. 




p*^.. 



7"_v/i(' «/ PlaiUatifiu I .(icoiiiDlivt — Baldicin 

The sramlard of weight on which payment is niaiie for cuttmg and 
loading the cane is the arrohc, or 2> Spanish pounds. (A Spanish pound is 
equi\alent to 1.014,^ Knghsh pounds.) Lahorers are paid hy the contractor 
usually from 7s cents to 5 1.00 per 100 arrohas for cuttmg and loading into 
carts. The cost of the haul to the railroatl siding is figured on the basis of 
the distance, and ranges from 25 to 50 cents per 100 arrohas, tor labor only; 
when the cartmen supply their own carts and the cattle that haul them, 
they are usualh' paid double rates. 

Cane-cutting iinoKes the most serious labor ]iroblem that confronts the 
sugar planter in Cviba. In the first jihice, to ojierate the mill economically it 
is necessar\' to furnish it with sufficient cane to keep it running night and day 
throughout the croji season. In the second place, cane-cutting is a laborious 
hand process, and the supply of labor is inadequate for the Island's needs. 
It is to be noted that thus far no mechanical cane-cutting device has proved 
successful in Cuba. 



Tr-ansport'uig 
the Qane 



I HE methods used for delivering cane from the 
-Afield to the factory are twofold: animal and me- 
chanical. The piles of cut cane are loaded into two- 
wheeled bull carts and hauled to the nearest railroad siding. Here the cane 
is weighed and then transferreti, generally by means of field cranes, sometimes 
by hand, to railroad cars of special design. The weighing of the cane in the 

[Page 3 o 1 



The Story of Cuban S u c; a k 



t^- 



-5©. 



field is effected by means ot either a platform or an o\-erheat) scale. When 
the former is used, the cart is weighed with its loatl ot cane, the tare, or 
weight of the empty cart, being dedvicteil. When an overhead scale is used, 
the cane alone is weighed. The contractor pa\s his men on the basis of 
weights thus obtained, while he 
in turn is paid on the basis ot 
the weights cietermined at the 
mill. 

On the United Fruit Com- 
pany's plantations the ckniisy 
high wheels of the cane carts 
have been replaced with cat- 
erpillar treads, which make it 

possible tor tewer animals not ^"'-■i ' • 

only to haul greater loads ot 
cane, but to haul them under 
all kinds ot road and weather 
conditions. These caterpillar 
treads, moreover, improve the 
condition ot the roads. On the 
Company's plantations, haul- 
ing experiments have recenth- 
been made with tractors, antl 
it is not unlikely that within 
the next tew years tractors will 
g r a d u a 1 1 y r e p 1 a c e b u 1 1 s and 
oxen to a considerable extent 
in this phase ot the work. 

When each car is loaded, 
a tag is affixed giving the data 
required, such as the name ot 

the farm, the contractor, the siding, the date when loadeii and the car 
number. The farm overseer makes a daily estimate of the number of empty 
cars required for his district, together with the distribution by sidings, for 
the ensuing twenty-four hours. A proper distribution of "empties" is es- 
sential for purposes of maximum economy; it is particularly important when 
the mill is running to capacity that every available empty car be utilized 
in keeping the factory properly supplied with cane day and night. As the 

1 P n g e 31] 




Traill of Loaded Caiic Cars 



The S t o r -i' of C r i? a x Sugar 



-o^- 



-^ 




. -tdmin'tstratiou Building 

railroad is efficient only when each car carries its capacity loadot cane, it is 
one of the duties of the farm overseer to see that every car is loaded Kill. 
The cane is delivered to the mill in long trains, each car containing from 
ten to thirty tons of cane, according to the gauge ot the railroad. 



a 



Qolo?io" Qane 



I 



T is the policy of most of the centrals in Cuba to 
purchase by contract a considerable portion ot their 
cane from adjacent planters, called "colonos," who 
grow the cane on their own or leased land, or on land belonging to the cen- 
tral.* This practice on the part of the centrals encourages the planting of 
cane by individuals within a convenient radius ot the tactory. As a rule, the 
centrals advance the necessary w^orking capital to the colonos, and the settle- 
ments tor cane delivered by them are applied against such loans. The usual 
form ot contract stipulates that the colono must supply cane of proper age 
and condition, without tops or suckers and not fermented, and that he shall 
receive therefor a certain percentage or unit of sugar, based on the weight of 
his cane as determined by the factory scales, or its cash equivalent. 



• The cane farms operated bv these planters are called "colonias." 
[Page :,z\ 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 

■^ — g» 



rr FP ri" 



^^^^^TB! r-lT?i?fi^Tif^ 







Hospital 

This sugar unit varies from 5 to 8 per cent, according to conditions and 
customs prevailing in different parts oi the Island. For example, if a colono 
has a contract stipulating 5 per cent, he receives, for every 100 arrobas (2,500 
pounds) of cane which he delivers, 5 arrobas (125 pounds) of 96° test raw 
sugar, or its equivalent in cash. The latter usually represents the average of 
the market prices of raw sugar, as reported officially from Havana, during the 
week or fortnight within which the cane is delivered by the colono to the mill. 
It is the general practice to liquidate the colono accounts in cash, but some 
of the Cuban-owned mills pay the colonos in actual sugar. It is interesting to 
note that while about 80 per cent of the cane produced in the Island is raised 
by colonos, the greater portion of the cane ground at the two mills of the 
United Fruit Company (Centrals Boston and Preston) is company-grown or 
"administration" cane. 

FacfOf'S of t HE tonnage yield of cane per acre is the figure 

Yield closely followed by the agricultural management, 

while the raw-sugar yield per ton of cane ground 

is the controlling factor in the case of the sugar mill. Thus the basic figure, 

when available, for the sugar company's executives is the number of pounds 

[ P a g e 3 3 I 



The Story of Cuban S r c; a r 



-05- 



-5«. 




I arm Occrscir' s llonsi 



ot raw sugar produced per 
acre ot cane. This latter 
tactur, howexer, is not eiii- 
ployeci extensixeU in Cuba, 
because ot the "colono" 
svstem, and because the 
cane is usually deii\'ered 
to the mill smiultaneously 
from so man\' different 
points, that it is ditficidt, 
it not impracticable, to keej'' 
an accurate recori.1 ot the 
commercial sugar yield per 
acre. This record, h()\ve\'er, 
is available in Hawaii and 
is in tjeneral use there. 




Lj>**ii,;^ 



La(/u)i)\\' Han ill ks Liitttii i/\ Couijuuiy 




11: 



[Page 34] 



Part II 



The Sugar Factory or '^QeutraV* 
in Quha 



Mt^- 



T H E Story of Cuban Sugar 



-5«. 



ri 



/ - ' '-Si 





[ 1' a g e 36] 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 



Part II 
'The Sugar Factory or ^^Qe^itra/^^ in Qiba 

The final product of a central is raw sugar of a light brown color and of 
approximately 96 degrees polarization, or sugar 96 per cent pure. The term 
polarization, as employed in the sugar industry, indicates the method of de- 
termining the percentage of sucrose by means of an instrument known as the 
polariscope. . ■ 

Usual zJACcthod t HE usual method of manufacturing raw sugar from 
ofzy^afiufacture cane may be considered under four general heads: 

Extraction ot the Juice 

Clarification 

Evaporation, and Formation ot the Crystals 

Separation ot the Crystals from the Molasses 

r*hetnical T^ ^^e manufacture ot raw sugar there are some 
r^07ltrol I '-I'l'ivoidable losses ot the original sucrose in the 
cane, principally in the "bagasse," or crushed cane; 
in the filter-press cake; and in the final molasses. To reduce these losses to 
a minimum, strict chemical control of the factory is essential. This involves 
keeping an exact account ot the sucrose entering the factory in the form 
of crude material — cane; and ot the sucrose leaving the central in the form 
ot finished product — raw sugar, as well as ot the losses ot sucrose in the 
bagasse, the filter press cake and the final molasses. This work requires that 
all weights and measurements be accurately taken and that the material in 
process at the various stations throughout the factory be properly sampled 
and carefully analyzed. A compilation of the various data constitutes 
what is known as the daily and the weekly report. 

FactOfS of i ERTAIN basic factors are of vital interest to the 

Efhciencv VV "''^'■'^ge'''''£"t in the proper checking of plant 

operation. These are: first, the milling or grinding 

efficiency, indicated either by the percentage of juice extracted, based on 

[Page 37] 



The SroR-i- of Cuban Sugar 



•>•- 



-5«. 




Ct'iilral Boston 

total juice in cane, or by the percentage of sucrose in the extracted juice, 
based on total sucrose in cane; second, hoiling-house efficiency, indicated by 
the percentage ot sucrose, in the form ot raw sugar, recovereii from sucrose 
in extracted juice; and third, general factory efficiency, determined by the 
percentage of sucrose in raw sugar produced, based on total sucrose in the 
cane entering the central. 

The average results obtainetl by the modern centrals in Cuba show a 
grinding efficiency of from 91 to 9> per cent; a boiling-house efficiency of 
from 92 to 97 per cent; and a general factory efficiency of from 85 to 90 
per cent. 





.iitmiidl 






MMWiawnriri — -—•^-^ 1 -I'h 




I/s CIi(IjIwhsc\ Chunk diid Cottages jor Mcchivius 



[ P a g e 3 8 1 



The Story of C r u a n Sugar 

T)elivery of the /^\^ arrival at the mill yard, or "hatey," the cars of 
ra?lC f J "-"^""^ ^"^"^ '^'"'-^ weighed indi\idually. The net weight 
of the cane in each car is ascertained by deducting 
the tare, i.e., the weight ot the empty car. It is on this basis that the contrac- 
tor and the "colono" are paid for company and private cane, respectivelv. 

After being weighed, the cars are placed alongside a conveyor which feeds 
the factory with cane. Next, each car in turn is shunted to a dumping platform, 
or tipping table, where it is securely held by clamps. One side of the car is then 
opened, and the platform, together with the car, is tilted towards a dump 
pit into which the cane falls by gravity. The floor of this pit is the initial unit 
of the conveyor which gradually carries the cane upward to the grinding or 
milling plant, located on the ground floor ot the factory, where the juice is 
extracted. The conveyor, or cane elevator, is driven independently of the 
milling plant, a method which tends to insure uniformitv in the delivery of 
the cane. After the car is emptied, the tilting platform resumes its h(M-izontal 
position and the empty car is removed. The handling of cars from the scales 
to the tipping table and from there to the mill yard is usually effected by 
means of an electric or steam winch. 



Extraction of the ^ MHE milling plant in the smaller factories usually 
'fuicc -^ consists of one " tandem, " comprising a "crusher" 
and three or more "mills." The larger plants are 
usually equipped with two or more tandems (paralleling each other), each 
comprising double crushers and three or more mills. In two or three of the 
most modern installations in Cidia, the tandem consists of triple crushers 
and five or six mills. Independent records are carefully kept of the work of 
each tandem.* 

A "crusher" consists of two rolls, placed one above the other, with 
interlocking or corrugated teeth, or with deep grooves in their surface. A 
"mill" is composed of three rolls, as contrasted with the two cylinders of a 
crusher, one roll being on top and the other two on the lower level. Their 
surface is annularly grooved to facilitate the grinding action and to enable 
the rolls better to grip the cane mat. Both the crusher and mill rolls are 
high-grade cast-iron shells shrunk on heavy steel shafts and, in the larger 
plants, are usually seven feet in length and about three feet in diameter. 



* The first cane mill was a tree stump, hollowed out to form a mortar. In this mortar, a log, acting as a 
pestle, was revolved by oxen. Then came stone mortars, then wooden rolls and then the hydraulically- 
operated metal rolls of the present day. 

[Page 39] 



The S t o r ■!.' of C u c a n S i" g a r 



^- 



■i5«. 




Switchinz Cane Cars at the Mill Yard 



Each crusher and mill unit is hca\il\- mounted on substantial bedplates 
and housings. The toji roll of the crusher antl of the mill units is controlled by 
a hydraulic ram which permits the roll to rise and tall or "Hoat" with the va- 
riations in the teed ot the cane. Practice \aries as to the hytlraulic pressure 
applied to these top rolls. In the more modern ]ilants, this pressure approx- 
imates about 250 tons on the crushers anci ranges from about 350 tons on 
the first mill to about 500 tons on the last mill unit. The tandem is driven 
by steam or electricity, through a train of double retluction gears, the shafts 
being directly connected to the top roll or each mill unit. The gears are so 
arranged that the speed of the rolls is grailualK- increased from the first to 
the last mill unit.* 

Upon entering the tactor\-, the cane falls evenly from the head of the con- 
veyor by grax'ity chute to the first crusher, ami then passes by gravity to the 
second crusher below. This preliminary grinding breaks down the hard struc- 
ture ot the cane, which is prepared for milling by being crushed, torn and 



* Central Boston milling plant comprises the foUowins;: two tandems, each consisting of two sets 
ot crushers and five sets of mills; also two tandems, each consisting of four sets of mills, the first 
set being grooved and functioning as crusliers. 

Central Preston milling plant has two tandems, each consisting of two sets of crushers and five sets 
of mills; also one tandem with two sets of crushers and three sets of mills. 

[Page 40] 



^- 



T H E S T O R ■i' of C U BAN S U G A R 



-5«. 




Unloading "Side-Dump" Cane Car 

matted. Thelarger percentage of the juice is extracted in this initial operation. 

The mat of crushed cane is then carried by an apron or slat conveyor, 
called an "intermediate conveyor," to the first and succeeding mill units. A 
heavy curved metal plate, supported by a proportionately heavy bar, and 
placed between the two bottom rolls ot each unit, guides the cane, which first 
passes between the top roll and the front bottom roll, called the "cane roll," 
and then travels between the top roll and the back bottom roll, called the 
"bagasse" or "discharge" roll. 

The blanket of cane in like manner passes through all the mills, the rolls 
of each succeeding unit being set closer together than those ot the preceding. 
The function of the mills is to grind the cane more thoroughly than the crush- 
ers and to extract as much additional juice as possible. 

After passing through the last set of mills, the blanket or mass of crushed 
cane (bagasse) is mechanically conveyed to the furnaces, into which it falls by 
gravity, and is burned as fuel to generate steam. Any temporary excess of 
bagasse is mechanically diverted to storage, and is reclaimed by the same con- 
veyor system and returned to the furnaces as required. Since the fuel value 
of bagasse is inversely proportionate to its moisture content, it is important 
to obtain as dry bagasse as possible. In a modern plant the bagasse from the 

[Page 41] 



The Story of Cuban S r g a r 



^- 



-5«- 




('.(Die Hc'ufr Conveyed to the (Juslwrs and the First "Mill" 



last mill will usually contain from 2 to ; per cent ot sucrose, ami from 47 to 55 
per cent of moisture. As a rule, after the crop is well untler way, little fuel 
other than hagasse is necessary, except where maceration (descrihed below) 
is practiced extensively. Crude oil or wood is used tor auxiliary fuel. 

The raw juice, which is turhid and yellowish or greyish-green as expressed 
from the mills, tails into Juice pans directly helow the tandem; thence over 
strainer plates or screens, which remo\e the toreign matter ami the fragments 
or particles ot cane fibre, to the gutters or troughs; whence it flows by gravity 
to the juice wells. 'I"he strained juice is then weighed or measured and pumped 
to the clarification department, onlinarily situateil at the top of the house. 

To obtain the maximum extraction ot sucrose, water (some factories 
using hot and others cold) is applied to the cane mass while it is passing 
through the tandem, usually in front of all the mills except the first set. 
This practice, called "maceration" (also "imbibition" or "saturation"), 
assists in washing out part of the remaining sucrose from the cells of the cane. 
The water used tor this purpose \aries from 10 to 25 per cent or more, figured 
on the basis ot weight ot cane. The extraction of sucrcjse is affected by the 
quantity ot maceration water used, which, in turn, may be limited either by 
the insufficient capacity of the evaporating plant to handle it or by the lack 

[ 1' a g e 4 : ] 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 



-o<j- 



-5«. 



of water itself. To avoid the introduction ot too much water into the juice, 
and the consequent necessity of evaporating it, in modern practice much of 
this washing is done with diluted juice. The water is then usually applied 
in front of the last two sets of mills, and the diluted juices irom these mills 
are sprayed on the cane in front 
of the forward mills. 

The grinding capacity de- 
pends more or less upon the set- 
tingand thegroovingot therolls, 
and the speed at which they are 
run, which averages about three 
revolutions a minute. This slow 
grinding is necessary to secure 
a proper extraction ot the juice. 
By increasing the clearance 
between the rolls, a mill can 
be forced to grind considerably 
more cane than its rated max- 
imum capacity, but such prac- 
tice will cause a serious reduc- 
tion in the amount ot sucrose 
extracteci. 

A single tandem in an aver- 
age factory grinds about 2,000 
tons ot cane per day ot 24 hours, 
while in a tew ot the most mod- 
ern plants in Cuba the rate is 
from 3,000 to 3,500 tons. In 
one or two instances, a single 
tandem on a spurt lasting eight 
or ten hours has sustained a 
grinding rate ot trom 4,000 to 
4,200 tons per day, the rate 
dropping back because of the inability of the railway switches in the mill 
yard to handle the necessarily large number of cane cars tor a longer period 
of time. These enormous cane capacities are only possible with the so-called 
"super-tandems," equipped with eighteen rolls and double or triple crushers. 

It is essential to economical operation that there be a proper balance, not 

I P a g e 4 ,1 1 




Ca)ie Mat i)i ForcgvoiDid Lcavi)!'^ Sccofui Crusher 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 



-»(;- 



-i5«. 




Tamkm ivith Doiihle Crushers and Three "Mills" 

only between the cane supply of a factory and its grinding capacity, hut be- 
tween all departments throughout the plant itself. When the grinding effi- 
ciency is developed to the maximum, not only is additional sucrose extracted 
from the cane, but also additional impurities are obtained, and it is highly 
important that the clarification equipment be made adequate to hantlle prop- 
erly the burden of these increased impurities. 



Qla7'ificatio7i 



O'^ 



^GAR cane contains from 8 to i6 per cent ot fibre; 
the remainder of its weight is juice. This juice, 
although composed chiefly of water, contains from 
12 to 1 8 per cent of sucrose and from i to 2 per cent of impurities. The latter 
are principally gums, pectins, glucose, nitrogenous bodies, inorganic salts and 
fine particles of bagasse, commonly termed "bagacillo," which go through the 
juice screens. These impurities are partially removed from the raw extracted 

[Page 44] 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 

^ ^ — ' ^ 

juice by clarification, and in part are accumulated in the final molasses. A 
good clarification of the juice is very important to remove the impurities 
which prevent the crystallization of the sugar, and which make difiicult its 
separation from the molasses. Several methods are in vogue, the defecation 
process being generally used. In all of these processes, however, the crude 
juice is treated with lime, which neutralizes the acids and causes a partial 
precipitation of the impurities.* 

In the defecation process the limed juice is pumped into heaters where 
exhaust steam is used to raise the temperature of the juice to about 200° F., 
or a little below the boiling point. From these heaters the juice is discharged 
into large open tanks, called "defecators," where live steam is applied to 
raise the juice temperature to the boiling point. The combineii action of lime 
and heat results in a coagulation of the impurities, the mineral or heavy com- 
pounds settling to the bottom of the tank, carrying down also some organic 
or lighter impurities which envelop the mineral particles. The greater part 
of the organic impurities, however, is rendered insoluble and rises to the 
surface, carrying along the bagacillo, and forms a blanket of scum resting on 
top of the body of the juice. 

The clear, amber-colored juice is now confined between the two layers 
of impurities and is drawn off until the two layers meet. The entire mass of 
impurities then is washed with water into the scum tanks below, where it is 
heated and allowed to re-settle. The available clear juice is then drawn of^" 
and is sent to the evaporators. The mud remaining is diluted and, while hot, 
is put through a filter press, consisting of a series of flat cast-iron plates 
with strong cotton filter cloths placed between the plates and hollow frames. 
After the plates have been screwed tightly together, the mud is subjected 
by pumping to a pressure of from 40 to 50 pounds per square inch, and the 
filtered juice is combined with the rest of the clear juices in process. Acer- 
tain amount of hot water is forced through the presses and carries off a por- 
tion of the sucrose remaining in the scum. This mud, called filter-press 
cake or " cachaza," remaining in the presses and containing from ^^o to 60 per 
cent of moisture, is dumped into cars and sent to the cane fields for use as 
fertilizer. 

Some of the larger and more modern factories in Cuba, including 

* Every effort is made to deliver the cut cane promptly to the mill to avoid the extraction of anv fer- 
mented juice. According to the best practice, cane is usually delivered to the central not later than 
two days after it is cut, or before the juice undergoes any perceptible chemical change. When 
extracted, the juice quicklv ferments unless the chemical action is promptlv arrested; the crude juice 
is therefore luned with the least possible delay. 

[Page 45] 



The Story of C r b a n S r g a r 



-o?- 



-^ 




I '.>:'. ' - ^ 



",/ / aliirijicrs 



Central Boston and CL-ntral Preston, hax'e recentU' installed Dorr Clarifiers 
to replace the defecators and settling tanks. These clarifiers, large cylindrical 
tanks, each di\itled into four compartments, continuously remo\'e the iminiri- 
ties from the strainetl raw juice, which has been previously limed and heated. 

The scums from the juice rise to the surface and are automatically 
skimmed oft ami dischargetl. The mud settles in each compartment and, 
by means of ir.echanically operated arms, is mo\ed to a central opening 
through which it drops to the bottom compartment. The mud is now of 
the consistency of porridge and is remcned by an especially designed type of 
pump, which delivers it in a uniftjrm, continuous flow to the filter presses. 

From each of the tour compartments the clear juice flows by gravity to 
a common o\erflow box, the discharge from each ccjmpartment being regu- 
lated by sleeves which permit the overflow level to be raised or lowered. 
This clear juice is sent to the evaporating department. 

[Page 46] 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 

^ — .V 

At Central Preston, in conjunction with the Dorr Chirifiers, the Petree 
Process has also been installed.'" The principal object (jf this prcKX^ss is the 
elimination ot the filter-press station with its attendant sucrose losses and 
high cost ot operation and upkeep. Under this process the rich juice from 
the crushers anci the first mill is independently and separately clarified from 
the thinner juice resulting from the subsequent milling of the macerated cane. 
This practice constitutes what is termed "primary clarification" and "second- 
ary clarification." 

The juices are limed at the mills by means of a new type ot liming appa- 
ratus. This is operated from one of the mill rolls and thoroughly mixes the 
milk ot lime with the juices at an early point, whereby considerable inversion 
and fermentation are thus avoided. 

In the operation ot the Petree Process, the rich juice trom the crushers 
and the first mill is mixed with the juice trom the secondary clarifier. This 
mixture is heated and delivered to the primary clarifier, the clear overflow 
ot which goes to the evaporators. 

The mud from the primary clarifier is mixed with the juice coming from 
the second and the third mills. This mixture is heated and delivered to the 
secondary clarifier, which separates it into "secondary" clear juice and 
"secondary" mud. The former, as shown in the preceding paragraph, is 
mixed with the rich "primary" juice anti thus undergoes a turther clarifica- 
tion. 

The "secondary" mud is mixeci with the juice from the fourth and the 
fitth mills. This mixture is evenly distributed in a thin stream over the whole 
width of the bagasse coming from the first and the second mills. It is ot 
interest to note that the bagasse acts as a filtering medium, the solid particles 
ot the mud being enmeshed with the crushed fibres ot the cane. This en- 
trapped mud is carried to the furnaces as a part ot the bagasse, and con- 
stitutes a certain addition to the fuel. The ashes, which are remarkably tree 
from clinkers, are collected and used in the fields as tertiliz.er. 

The mud returned to the mills cannot get into the clear juice going to 
the evaporators, because any sediment passing through the bagasse goes 
only to the secondary clarifier, whence it is returned to the mills. With con- 
tinuous settling and withdrawal of mud trom the clarifiers, there is a steady 
flow to the mills; on an average, to each loo tons ot cane passing through 
the mills, there are returned 5 tons of mud. 

* The Petree Process is still in the experimental stage and has been installed at Central Preston on trial. 

[Page 47I 



The S t o r V of C r b a n 8 u g a r 



^- 



-^ 




III.IM 



Tv:o Sugar Ships at Preston Wharj 



^-vaporatiofl^cuul * MIIE clear rhin juice ohtaineil 1\\- clarification 

Por/Ilil t iofl of the -^ must now he reiluceil to the consistency ot a 

Crv ■/ //■ s\rup and it is sent, hy either yraxity or junnping, 

" to the supply tanks ot the evaporators. 

The exaporator is a series ot large closed \essels called "etlects, \w 

which the claritieil juice, under a partial \acuuni, is concentrated and its 

water content reduced from about 85 to about 40 per cent. 1^'our \essels are 

usually employed, the apparatus then being called a "ipiadruple effect." 

The sugar manufacturer, making use ot the principle that liquids boil in a 

vacuum at a lower temperature than m an open \essel subject to normal at- 

niositheric pressure, reduces the atmosjihenc ]iressure in each effect to a point 

below that of the precetling one, in order to secure the maximum ot economy 

in operation. The first \'essel is theretore heated by means ot steam, the 

second by the vapors evaporated trom the juice in the first \essel, the third 

by the vapors trom the second effect, and so on to the last effect. 

From the evaporators the thickened juice, called syrup or "meladura," 
now dark brown in color, is pumpeil to storage tanks on the pan floor to be 
boiled in the vacuum pans as required. These "pans" are closed vessels 
heated by steam and are somewhat similar m construction to the e\"aporator 

1 1' a g <•• 4 S I 



T n E Story of C u b a n Sugar 

^ - ^ — — 5^ 

effect. A portion of the syrup is admitted to the pan where the final hoiHng 
down takes phace. This is accomphshed under a vacuum ot trom 25 to 27 
inches, maintained by means ot a steam or motor-driven vacuum pvimp 
and a large barometric condenser. When the syrup boils down to a certain 
density, generally 88 degrees Brix, the grains or crystals of sugar begin 
to form.* 

The principle ot sugar crystallization is embodied in the tact that water 
can hold only a given amount ot sucrose in solution. xAs the water is driven 
out of the cane juice, the latter finally reaches a stage where there is not 
enough water left to hold all the sugar dissolved. As evaporation proceeds, 
therefore, the sugar, deprived of its water, is compelled to pass out of solution 
into crystal form. 

The number and size of the crystals, and their proper growth as the 
syrup further evaporates, constitute a problem ot skillful manipulation ot the 
vacuum and involve the rate at which additional syrup or "first molasses" ox 
"second molasses" is drawn into the pan. This important work is under the 
control of well-trained men called "sugar boilers." The resultant prodvict ot 
the vacuum pan is a heavy mass ot crystals, dark brown in color, termed 
"massecuite."t It is not possible to boil all ot the syrup and molasses down to 
a crystal and at the same time separate the pure sucrose trom the impurities; 
therefore, enough moisture must be left in the massecuite to permit separa- 
tion of the crystals in the drying process. The impurities remain in the mother 
liquor and are carried off as molasses. 

In the process of manufacture the chief aim is to extract the greatest 
possible amount of sugar from the syrup. For this purpose various methods 
of boiling have been evolved, but the " three-massecuite " system, described on 
the following page, is the one mostwidelyused.t This involves the manufacture 



* The sugar industry uses floating spindles, called hydrometers, to indicate the amount of solids con- 
tained in a sugar solution. The scales enclosed in the stems of these instruments are graduated 
according to either the Brix or, the Baume system. 

Brix hydrometer, floated in a pure sugar solution, will indicate directly the percentage of sugar 
by weight. Any other substance present will increase the reading, so in an impure solution the Brix 
gives an approximation of the total solids. By dividing the percentage of pure sugar, as fount! by 
the polariscope, by the Brix reading, the purity of the material may be found. For this work, the 
Brix scale is used in the laboratory. 

The Baume scale, originally made to read percentages in a salt solution, has been revised so 
that now its reading is purely arbitrary. Its graduations are farther apart than a Brix scale of the 
same range, and therefore easier to read. This explains its continued use in the factory, 
t A complete operation, or cycle, of the vacuum pan is called a "strike" in both a central and a refin- 
ery, but in the latter it is also sometimes known as a "skip." 
{ First, second and third massecuite are called A, B and C massecuite, respectively. 

[Page 49] 



The Story of C v r. an Si' c; a r 



of "first," "second" and "third" sugar. The first and second sugars are 
mixed and sold as raw sugar of "96° test," while the third sugar is returned 
into the factory process. 

To make first sugar, the syrup or "melatlura" is drawn into the vacuum 
pan continuously from the time the grain is ft)rmed until the pan is full of 
massecuite, some first molasses being usualK' elrawn into the pan towards 
the end of the operation. When the pan has become filled with massecuite 
(called "first massecuite"), the contents are discharged first into a mixer and 
then into the centrifugal machines, where the crystals are separated from the 
molasses, as described on the following page. The sugar thus obtained is called 
"first sugar" and the molasses, which is thrown off, is "first molasses." 
The molasses is pumped to storage tanks abo\-e the pan floor where 
it is heatcil, ami diluted with water to a tlensit)' of about jo degrees 
Baume, equivalent to 54.J degrees Brix, to be used in making second 
sugar. 

In the making of second sugar, the ]ian is filled to about two-thirds 
capacit\- with grain formed as previously described; then half of its contents 
is drawn o\er into an adjacent empty pan. l-'irst molasses is then drawn into 
both of these pans and boiled down. As the concentration proceeds, the 
sucrose crystallizes out of the molasses on to the prexiously formed grain. 
The crystals in this "second massecuite" are then separated from the mo- 
lasses in the centrifugal machines in the same manner as for first sugar. 
This second sugar, having an average polarization of a trifle less than 96°, 
is mixed with first sugar as previously described. The second molasses is 
diluted and heatcil in the same way as the first molasses. 

Third sugar is made in the same manner except that second molasses is 
drawn into the pan instead of first molasses. After the required boiling in 
the pan, the massecuite is discharged into crystallizers. These are large 
c^■lindrical tanks jirovided with stirring mechanism, each crystallizer usually 
having a ca]>acitv equal to that of a vacuum pan. The massecuite is slowly 
but constantly stirred in these crystallizers for a period of from three to five 
days and during this time the grain continues tt) grow until the massecuite 
is cooled to atm(«pheric temperature. When this process, which may be 
considered as a continuation of the \acuum pan work, is completed, the 
massecuite is discharged into the centrifugals antl treated in the same manner 
as the first massecuite. The resulting crystals are then mixed with meladura 
or first molasses and are used as "seed" grain m the pans in making first 
sugar. 

[Page 5 o 1 



The Story of C v v, a n S i' g a r 

^ - ' — — -^-^^^^ .V 



Separation of the T TTHEN the first or second massecuite has 

Q-ysta/s from tfie f/i^ '-^^^" •-'"•'etl to a proper density the entire 

z^olasscs contents ot the vacuum pan are dropped into 

a ^'-shaped mixer equipped with paddles 
which revolve and keep the massecuite from hardening. From here it is 
drawn into the centrifugal machines as required. Each of these machines has 
a strong perforated bronze basket, about 40 inches in diameter and 24 inches in 
depth, lined with a very fine screen. After having been tilled with massecuite 
the basket is made to rotate at a very high speed (about 1,000 revolutions 
per minute). This centrifugal motion separates the crystals from the mo- 
lasses and forces the latter through the screen. The process is termed 
" drying of the crystals" or "purging. " After a \it\\ minutes' operation, the 
machine is stopped and the almost dry sugar, now of a light brown color 
and packed against the walls of the basket, is discharged through a plate 
valve on the bottom of the centrifugal. 

'lagging and I HE sugar is then carried by a screw conveyor to 
Stori?l7 ^ mechanical elevator where it is deposited in a 

large storage hopper overhead. From here it is fed 
by gravity to automatic weighing and bag-tilling scales, which also record 
the number of bags tilled. As a rule, raw sugar is bagged without any dry- 
ing other than that received in the centrifugals. It is packed usually 325 
pounds to the bag in jute bags imported from India. An empty bag ordi- 
narily measures 29 by 48 inches and weighs about 2.'; pounds.* 

During crop time, work in the sugar house goes on day and night, gener- 
ally in six-hour shifts. A great portion of this work, as well as the stevedor- 
ing of the sugar, is done on a contract basis. 

The storage of raw sugar without loss in polarization has been, and still 
is, a subject of much study. To possess good keeping qualities, raw sugar 
should be well made in a clean factory, should polarize not less than 96 
degrees and shouki have a moisture content not in excess of i per cent. The 
crystals should be of good size and should have received little or no washing 
in the centrifugals. The modern central is provided with a suitable ware- 
house of adequate capacity where the bagged sugars are automatically 
handled and properly stored until shipped. According to the best practice 
in Cuba, the bagged sugar is not piled more than eighteen tiers. 



Until about forty years ago, it was the general practice in Cuba to export raw sugar in hoasheads. 

[Page 5 I 1 



The Story of C ii B a n Sugar 
<iV^a7'ketm<^ T^.W sugars are generally sold through the medium 



R 



'"^ of a broker. His usual commission is ,'4 ot i per 
"cent when he only passes a contract and does not 
attend to rendering account sales or making collections from the refiner. 
When the latter work is undertaken, the customary brokerage charge is not 
less than J^ of i per cent. 

In the old days the planter in Cuba, having little cash and meagre 
storage facilities, was compelled to ship his product as tast as it was made, 
sometimes unsold; consequently, being at the mercy of the buyer, he was 
forced to accept what price he could secure; he was not able to hold his 
sugar for a possibly higher market. Today, most of the planters in Cuba 
are in a stronger financial position and, as a rule, have ample storage facilities. 
As a result, Cuban sugars are rarely shipped unsold, and when marketed, the 
price is more in line with the world's quotations. 

^'■^/ackstrabO?' /HE molasses obtaineil from the centrifugal ma- 
pjfj^J.J^fnJicc^c -^chines in the drying of the third sugar is called 

"blackstrap" or final molasses and is stored in 
large tanks within pumping distance of the factory. It is usually sold to 
distilleries for the manufacture of alcohol or to manufacturers of cattle feed. 
In exceptional cases it is spread on the fields as fertilizers, or mixed with 
bagasse and burned in the boiler furnaces. 

As stated in the Introductory Note, the United Fruit Company has 
erected, adjacent to Central Preston, a distilling plant for converting the 
blackstrap output of that sugar factory into alcohol-ether to be used for 
motor fuel instead of gasoline. 



[Page ■s^\ 



Part III 



The Refinery in the United States 



The Story of C v k a n Sugar 



^- 



?5«. 



r 



\r \y\\% 



1 1^. 

Ill' 




}ii 




III 




Ml 


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Hi 


i-i 


Ifi 


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HI 



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i! H Kl 3 n "• 1X41 V 

a a Ml a n » Ui 
ta a i a B mi 

n » 14 B i fie -\^^ 

« M iii ki D e I 

i Hi ta a li n^ 
N RE f« n Ki ti I. 

- - n li Niiii' 

f^ IPt* M» Pt ■» Dft 

Si ii m n i is 

n R 91 fi p pf= -'-' 




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Page ; . 



-05- 



T H E Story of C i' b a n Sugar 

- — w 



Part III 
T^he Refinery in the United States 

The refining of raw cane sugar is carried on in a refinery — a plant dis- 
tinct and separate trom a central where the raw sugar is extracted from the 
cane. The refinery first purifies the raw sugar, which is unsuitable for direct 
consumption, and then transtorms it into the different grades demanded by 
the individual tastes and requirements ot the consumers. 

'^asis of T^'^^^' sugar is purchased on the basis of 96° test, 
T^m'chasc A\ ^^'''''^'"' '^ the commercial standard. A certain allow- 
ance per pound tor each degree abo\-e, and a certain 
deduction per pound for each degree below, 96° is made.* It is bought on terms 
of cost and freight; C(xst, insurance and freight; and l.o.b. the shipping port. 
In the latter case the seller tielixers the raw sugar on the wharf within reach 
of the steamship's tackle without further expense to him beyond this point. 

Of the remaining 4 per cent in raw sugars of 96° test, about i per cent 
is water and represents an immediate loss to the refiner, and the other 3 per 
cent is composed of various impurities. Some of these impurities are insoluble 
and comparatively easy to remove by simple filtration, while the elimination 
of others is most difficult and involves processes requiring the consumption 
of about 20 pounds of coal and 500 gallons of water for every 100 pounds of 
"raws" refined. In refinetl sugar each crystal is of identical composition and 
analyzes practically 100 per cent pm-e. 

The refiner secures approximately 93 pounds of refined sugar from 100 
pountls of 96° raws, the yield of refineil sugar being less when the raws are 
below this test. Thus the higher the purchase price of raws, the greater the 
refiner's financial loss bv reason of this shrinkage. 



Imp07't ''iJllty /HE present United States Tariff Act, enacted 

J^ September, 1922, prescribes an import rate of 2.206 

cents per pound oti full-duty raw sugars of 96° test, 

with an addition or deduction of .046^- per pound, for each degree o\'er or 

under this test. Under the existing Reciprocity Treaty between the Llnited 

States and Cuba, raw sugars from the latter country enter the United States 

* See table on page 69. 



The Story of C i' b a n Sugar 



^- 



-5«. 




at a preferential rate ot 20 per 
cent less than the tuU duty, an 
arrangement which results in the 
present import duty of i.7648(i 
per pound tor Cuban sugar ot 
96° test. 

When a raw material is import- 
ed into the United States, man- 



SampUng Raw 
Sii^ar at 
Kcfiiwry 

utactured in- 
to a tinisheil 
protluct and 
exported, the 
Government 
retunds a]i- 
proximateh' 
99 per cent 
ot the dur\- 
paiti on the 
i m ]i o r t e d 
raw mate- 
rial. I his refund is known as drawback. I'"or example, on refined sugars 
manufactured from dut^-paid "raws" and exported, the drawback of ap- 
proximately 99 per cent is applied. Further, the drawback is also applied 
on refined sugar usetl in the manufactin-e of candy, canned goods and other 
finished products where such refined sugar is made from raw sugar on 
which liuty has been paid. Refinetl sugar is generally quoted for expcM't at 
a lower price than for domestic use, the difference between the domestic and 
export price being approximately the amount of the drawback. 

T)ischa r^'m o-the 



I itlddilnig Rdic Si(;^t!r til Kijiiurx 



'Scha?~vin<J'the Y JT J^ H I LE the sugar cargo is being dischargeci 
Sl^o-ar faV'J'O l/l^ Government, the buyer and the seller are all n 



'HI LE the sugar cargo is being discharged the 

repre- 
sented on the dock. A representative for each takes 
a sample from every bag as soon as landed on the wharf", the buyer and the 

[Page 56] 



The Story of C ii r. a n S l; g a r 



-05- 



-5©. 



seller alternating. The Government representative places his samples in 
separate tins and sends them to the Appraisers' Stores Laboratory tor testing. 
The buyer and the seller jointly use other tins, large enough to hold samples 
from approximately i sO bags. The contents ot these tins are mixed twice 
daily and three samples 
are taken therefrom and 
distributed to the buyer's 
chemist, the seller's chem- 
ist and to the New York 
Sugar Trade Laboratory, 
respectively; the average 
of the closest tests is the 
final purity basis on which 
settlement is made be- 
tween the buyer and the 
seller. 

The sugar is weighed 
first by the Government 
representative on electric 
automatic platform scales, 
and immediately there- 
after, at the expense of the 
seller, by the merchants' 
or private weigher who, as 
a rule, uses either plat- 
form or beam scales. The 
weights obtained by the 
latter determine the quan- 
tity of sugar purchased by Weighing Ra:v Sugar on U. S. Govcruwoit Scales 

the refiner. To secure the tare, or weight of the empty bag, the Government 
schedule of i.q pounds per bag may be accepted, or the importer may call 
for special tare when bags vary or when he is unwilling to accept the Govern- 
ment schedule. \n the latter case, the Government weigher tares about i or 2 
per cent of the empty bags and applies the average tare per bag, thus secured, 
to the entire cargo. The same practice is followed also by the merchants' 
or private weigher, who tares about <; per cent of the cargo. This tare usually 
averages about 2.5 pounds per bag and is deducted from the gross weight. 
Thus is obtained the net weight of the sugar, which is the basis of settlement. 




The Story of Cuban S u g a r 



■oc^ 



-5©. 




A'lKC Si'.zar i'n the Warehouse 



The seller is given credit for the total weight of all samples drawn, except 
the Government samples, which are delivered to the buyer minus the com- 
paratively small quantity actually used in the tests. In a 24,000-bag cargo, 
the Government will draw about 2,000 pounds ot samples and the buyer and 
the seller together a like quantity. In all the tests made in a cargo ot this 
size, about 100 pounds of samples will be actually consumed, this small quan- 
titv representing a loss to the buyer, as he pays tor but does not receive this 
sugar. 

The Government weighs and samples the sugar cargo independently of 
the buyer and the seller in order to determine the amount ot import duty to 
be collected thereon. As the Re\ere Sugar Refinery secures its raws trom 
the United Fruit Company, of which it is a subsidiary, it dispenses with this 
duplication of sampling and weighing and makes use ot the Government 
tigures. 

In the discharge of the cargo the loose sugar, whether in the hold ot the 
ship or on the dock, is carefully collected and is weighed both by the Govern- 
ment and the licensed weigher and is tested by the former. It is the usual 
custom for the buyer to accept anci pay tor all loose sugar or "sweepings" as 
clean sugar at approximately Jg of the full weight, or a little less, according 

[Page 5 8 1 



The St 



O R 'V 



^- 



f C u BAN Sugar 



-.^ 




Power Plant 

to its conilitiun. In other words, it a cargo outturns 30,000 pounds of loose 
sugar, tlie buyer accepts and pays tor about ib^l^o pounds, a loss ot 3,750 
pounds to the seller tor dirt. It is therefore to the advantage ot the seller to 
deliver sfjund cargoes, outturning a minimum ot loose sugar. Raw sugar is 
usually discharged at the rate of about 1,200 bags per hour. Part of the cargo 
is stored in the refiner\' warehouse and the remainder sent to the melt house. 



Usual '•Jttct hod 
of Refining- 



■s 



'W- 



' HILE the principles of sugar refining are compara- 
tively simple, the actual operation is decidedly 
complex. As the processes are continuous, the 
work goes on day and night, usually in eight-hour shifts. Each step has to 
be controlled continually and carefully by means of tests made by the chemi- 
cal laboratory, which also carries on a considerable amount of research work. 
All refinery calculations are conducted on the standard basis of 100 pounds 
ot raw sugar. 

[Page 59] 



T H ]■ S T (1 R -i' f C I' H A N S V G A R 



-»?- 



-5©. 




The Laboratory 
riic usual nictlKxl ot rcfininc raw canc-simar niav be considered under 



the followinij; heads:* 



Mi;i,r HorsE 



Filter Hoisf. 



1'an- Hoi se . . 

FiN'isHiN(, House 
^J^elt HoUSL 



Diinijiing 
j Mingling 

) Purging and Washing 
' Melting 

Clarification 

Bone Charcoal (Boneblack) Filtration 
/ Crystallization 

Separation ot Crystals from Syrup 
( Drying 
( Screening 
( Packing tor Shipment 



/fr 



T the refinery dump the bags are sampled and 
weighed, then cut open and emptied and the raw- 
sugar is carried by conveyors to the storage bins at 
the top of the house. From here it is ted continuously into the minglers. 



See diagram >.){ rcfiniiiL; process (condensed flow-sheet) on page 7c. 
(Page- 6 o 1 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 



-o?- 



-5«. 




J'acHuin Paris — Where the Siwar Cr\stals are Formed 




' f urging" the Sugar in the Leutrijugats 



[Page 6 i] 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 



■.V 




The Finished Prodncl — Packed in lumeli and Bags 



immediately be- 
low, which are 
simply scroll con- 
veyors equipped 
with mixing 
flights. There the 
rawsugaris mixed 
with wash syrup 
to soften the film 
of molasses ad- 
hering to the sur- 
face of the crystals. It is next sent to the centritugal machines, ot the type 
used in raw-sugar manufacture, where the molasses coating is separated from 
the crystals. These crystals are then washed with a measuretl c^uantity of 
cold water while the machines are rotating. 

As refining consists in separating the pure sugar from its impurities, the 
removal of this molasses film, containing most ot the impurities ot raw sugar, 
may be considered as the first important step in refining operations. The 
products of this process of separation are two: first, a washed sugar of greatly 
improved color and purity; second, a wash syrup of comparatively low 
purity, which can be handled better separately. 

The washed sugar is dissolved in about one-halt its weight ot hot water 

[Page 6 ; 1 



The S t o r V of Cuban Sugar 



-05- 



-5©. 




The Finished Product — Packed in Cartons 

in tanks called "melting pans," equipped with mechanical stirrers. The 
resultant solution, dark brown and cloudy, is pumped to the filter house for 
further purification. Some of the wash syrup is used for mixing with the raw 
sugar in the minglers — as previously explained — and the excess is sent to the 
filter house, where it undergoes much the same process as the sugar liquor. 



Filter House 



J- UDS 



HE washed sugar liquor is pumped to the "blow- 
ups "where its temperature and density are adjusted, 
and some suitable porous filtering medium, as, for ex- 
ample, phosphoric acid and lime, infusorial earth or macerated paper pulp, is 
added to make the liquor more adaptable to filtration. These blow-ups are iron 
tanks fitted with steam coils for heating the liquor, and are equipped with con- 
ical bottoms to lacilitate drainage. The sugar solution is next pumped through 
mechanical filters where the suspended impurities are removed. The filtered 
Hquor, now of a clear brown color, is passed through char filters (large cylin- 
drical tanks) filled with boneblack (animal charcoal, or bone char). These char 
filters remove the coloring matter and some of the soluble impurities, the 
process giving a sugar liquor as clear and colorless as the purest spring water. 
The clear sugar liquor is followed on the boneblack by syrups from 

[Page 63] 



The Story of Ci'ban Sugar 



-o§- 



-h^ 




Loading Truck Kilh Su^rar 

which some granulated sugar has been boiled, ami these in turn by other 
material ot still lower grade, such as mechanically filterctl wash syrup. From 
all these the boneblack removes color and impurities, in decreasing amounts 
as its absorbuig power becomes exhaustetl. 

The exhausted boneblack must next be "washed off," so boiling water 
is admitted to the filter. This displaces the sugar liquor and when the out- 
flow of the filter becomes dilute, the sweet water is di\ertcd to the "sweet 
water" tanks. This sweet water is mixed with other similar solutions and is 
concentrated in evaporators, ot a type similar tf) that used in a "central," 
and re-enters the blow-ups to begni the jirocess o\-er again.''' N\ hen the sweet 
water from the char filters becomes so low in purity as to be worthless tor 
further sugar recovery, it is run to waste. The washing ot the bone char is 
continued several hours more to remcn-e the impurities it has absorbed. 
Some of these, however, are so strongly held by the boneblack that water will 
not remoxe them and heat must be resorted to; accordingh', the boneblack 
is discharged from the filter, partially dried, then heated in special kilns. 



* The evaporators in a raw suaar factory plav a verv important part in the process of manufacture, 
as all of the clarified cane iuice goes through them for concentration. In a refinery, however, they 
do not have the same relative importance, beina used only tor concentrating the "sweet water." 



[ P a g e 6 4 1 



'O^- 



T H E S T o R -i' of C u 1? A N Sugar 



=5^ 




Biiticry ijj J'nn'.^ U 



These kilns are so constructed that the char passes through in a continuous 
stream, but air is excluded since an unregulated air current at this stage 
would be fatal to the life of the boneblack. This treatment, to a considerable 
extent, restores the purifying properties of the char and it is used and re-used 
until those properties are entirely exhausted. 



T*a?i House 



<:Lyi^l 



FTER char filtration has been effected, the sugar 
solution, or liquor, is pumped to the pan house. 
Here it is drawn into vacuum pans and concen- 
trated at a low temperature under approximately twenty-six inches of vacuum 
until it has formed a magma, a mass of crystals mixed with a small quantity 
of syrup, resembling in character the massecuite of the raw-sugar factory. 
This crystallization is a very important stage of refining, as the temperatm^e 
at which the sugar is boiled and the method of forming the grain determine 
the character of the finished product. The men who do this work, known as 
"sugar boilers," are of long experience and training. 

The magma is purged in the centrifugals, the crystals being separated 
from the syrup and slightly washed with a mechanically controlled spray of 
purified water. The sugar is then automatically discharged from the machines 

[ P a g e 6 5 ] 



The Story of C i; b a n Sugar 



-o?- 



'5«. 




Cooperage I'uDti Lxicri'jV 

anti is passed througli long revolving drums, calleil "granulafors," and 
thoroughly i.lricd in a current ot hot air. The light colored syrups Irom the 
centrifugals are re-boiled with liquor to protluce more granulated sugar. The 
darker syrups are either re-boiled to remove the remaining sugar, which is 
then re-melteil and re-enters the process, or they are rc-tiltered through bone- 
black and boiled tor a sott or brown sugar, which is sold as such. The final 
exhausted resielue from the centrifugals constitutes refinerv svrup. The 
latter is protluced either as filtered syrup or as blackstrap, according to the 
demantls of the trade. 



Fi?lis/ii/liJ- House ^ / ^E. dried granulated sugar is screened into various 

J^ sizes and is packed in barrels, bags or cartons. 

The work of packing is done almost entirely by 

machiner\-, the sugar flowing from overhead bins into the various containers. 

The barrels are first lined with paper by hand and are automatically shaken 

while the sugar Hows into them. This shaking aids in filling them to capacity. 

1 1' a g e 6 6 I 



The Story of Cuban S ii g a r 




Cvopcragc Phvil — Interior 

Each barrel of sugar is headed and weighed separately and the weight is 
marked thereon. It is then sent by a conveyor to the shipping room or the 
warehouse. A single machine automatically fills a bag with the required 
amount of sugar, sews the mouth and discharges the full bag into a chute 
leading to the shipping room. 

The carton-packing machine automatically fills, weighs and seals the 
two and five-pound packages of granulated sugar, operating at the rate of 
thirty per minute for the former and twenty-six for the latter. For powdered 
sugar, which is generally packed in one-pound cartons, the machine performs 
the additional work of inserting a lining of wax paper before the sugar is 
admitted into the cartons. Cubes and tablets are made by a process of 
pressing moist granulated sugar into molds and then drying them in ovens. 



CooperaP'e fT'is, evident that a refinery, requiring containers in 
/ such quantities for its products, cannot risk depend- 
ence upon the usual sources of supply in the open 
market. Consequently, a well-equipped cooperage plant is operated as an 



[Page 67I 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 

^ -.V 

adjunct to the modern refinery, producing all the liarrels and wooden cases 
necessarv for the packing ot its sugars. Elm, gumwooei and other semi-hard 
woods are largely used, the hulk ot the supply commg from Kansas, Missouri, 
Mississippi and Louisiana. 

^J^arkctUl'J' /he sugar product ot the refineries is sold to the 

J^ confectionery antl other manufacturing trades and 

to wholesale grocers and jobbers, either directly or 

through brokers, tor domestic use, or through brokers tor export. The 

wholesale grocers and jobbers sell to the rctad traiie, which in turn supplies 

the indi\'idual consumer. 

The filtereii syrups and blackstrap are soKl either directly or through 
brokers, to blenders, exporters and jobbers. The syrups are sold on the 
basis ot their color, clarity and chemical analysis and are used tor human 
consumption. The blackstrap is used tor the same purposes as the final 
molasses ot a raw sugar factory, i.e., it is either distilled into alcohol or used 
as feed tor live stock. 

'T)eIi'Very /J RAILROAD siding furnishes facilities for the 

V_-^^ shipment of full carload lots ami a fleet of" auto- 
mobile trucks makes prompt delivery in local and 
adjacent territory. 

"Disposal of C/npty * MHE empty jute bags, after being washed in hot 
T{aw-Sucrar '^a^s -^ water to remove all adhering sugar particles, are 

sold as second-hand bags and eventually find 
their wa\- into the potato, coconut and other trades. Only in times of 
extreme shortage of new bags are these washed bags mended and re-shipped 
to Cuba to be used again as raw-sugar containers. They prove unsatisfactory 
for this purpose, as the washing weakens the fibre. 

It is interesting to note that the Revere Sugar Refinery makes it a prac- 
tice not to wash the best of the empty bags. These are mechanically dry- 
brushed tor the recovery of any ailhering sugar, mended by sewing machines, 
baled and returned to Cuba to be used a second time by the United Fruit 
Company for shipping its raw sugar to Boston. This practice has proved 
highly economical and efficient as, when the bag is dry-brushed, the fibre is 
not weakened. 

[ P .1 g e 6 8 ] 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 



•^r- 



■5©. 



Qonclh 



■ISlOfl 



CL/J^er 



SUGAR refinery operates on the basis ot the differ- 
ence between the cost of its raws, including the im- 
port ciuty, and the selling price of its refined sugar. 
On this narrow margin it must pay all manufacturing expenses, including the 
loss due to the impurities in raw material, as well as the cost of packing and 
selling. It is essential that a refinery have deep water for directly receiving 
its raw-sugar cargoes. Moreover, its location should afford a good supply 
of labor, coal and water, in addition to adequate rail and highway transporta- 
tion for the delivery of its products. All these factors, together with the 
increasing number of fancy grades of refined sugar demanded by the public, 
have resulted in the concentration of the industry in a few large refineries, 
situated for the most part at the large Atlantic seaboard centres, with daily 
productions ranging from 1,000,000 to 5,000,000 pounds. 



* See page 5 5 

Table of Allowances and Deductions for Raw Sugar Polarizing Above 
AND Below 96 Degrees, Respectively 

Effectit'f lotth crop of igig — ig20 







AUowanct 


!• 


er Degree 


Allowauct 


per Degree 








95 


to 


9' 








Price pc 


/■ Pound 




96 


to 


95 




Above 97 








96 


to 


97 








C and F 


Duly Paid 


C and F 




Duty Paid 


C and F 


Duty Paid 


Cents 


Cents 
















5.00 5.999 


6.00 — 6.999 


10 


pts. 




12 pts. 


5 


pts. 


1 pts. 


6.00 6.999 


7.00 7.999 


II 






13 " 


5K 




iH " 


7.00— 7.999 


8.00 — 8.999 


12 






14 " 


6 




8 


8.00 8.999 


9.00 9.999 


^3 






15 " 


6K 




8J2 " 


9.00 9.999 


10.00 10.999 


14 






16 " 


7 




9 


10.00 10.999 


I 1. 00 — 11.999 


15 






17 " 


7K 




9K " 


11.00 11.999 


12.00 12.999 


16 






18 " 


8 




10 




Fractions of 


a degree in p 


re 


portion. 









Forpriceshigherorlower than those that appear in this table, the allowance to the seller on sugars over 
96 degrees (but not exceeding 97), and to the refiner on sugars under this figure, increases or decreases 
one point (1 cent per 100 pounds) for each cent of increase or decrease in price. The rate of allowance to 
sellers for polarization over 97 degrees increases or decreases one-half point ('< cent per 100 pounds) 
for each cent of increase or decrease in price. 



[Page 69] 



The S t o r -i' of C r n a n S h g a r 



-=»5- 



-5©. 



Refinery - 

ConDEMSED FLow Sheet 

MeltHouse 



I 



I ■STorsy^Cr^ £>ir/5 



I CE:rrrRiFuqAi-s\ 



\MELTiri<i Fy\ri^ 



I V£^5HSlfSUF' I 



FILTER. House 



~\E>lov^ Uf=s h 






\E>Orf£:E>i-y^<^K F~/L.TE/S^ ^ 



3_ 



\Kii-nt,\ 



I EvAF^I^ATtPf?^ 



F^aj-f House. 

VVacuum F'AriS) 1 
I 

I CEnTFllFUCA.L.^ I 



I 



I /ggA/g^r-StAj^ie"! ISoFr^t/q/i/gF |.Pi'^/^f5t/<v/<gl |///<?;H'S//gt//=5| I EdwSifsups I 



I rH-TEtZ H0U5e\ 






ort^BL^CK 



1 UJo/vggz»y |[t^f6't//fi^/ysl 



rmisHimHousE i ^^^^-s^^'^H 



|5/^qs,.S-^g/Pfz.s Ann CAKrrorisA 






I TkucK5,Oa?^/inDEtARF!Ei3i 



[Page 70] 



The Story of Cuban Sugar 

^ — ^5o 

"TiihUography 

A Few Selected References on Sugar 



Deerr, Noei. Cane Sugar. A Textbook on the Agriculture of the Sugar 
Cane, the Manufacture of Cane Sugar and the Analysis of 
Sugar-House Products. London, 1921. 

Johnston, J. R. Diseases of Sugar Cane in Tropical and Sub-tropical 
and others America. West Indian Bulletin, Vol. XVI, No. 4, pp. 

275-309 (1918). 

Jones, L. and 

ScARD, F. I. The Manufacture of Cane Sugar. London, 1922. 

Hines,CleveW. Cane Production and Sugar Manufacture in the Philippine 
Islands. Bureau of Agriculture, Philippine Islands. Bulle- 
tin 2Z^ 1919- 

Owens, W. L. The Deterioration of Cane Sugars in Storage; Its Causes, 
and Suggested Measures for Its Control. Louisiana Ex- 
periment Station Bulletin 162, March, 191 8. 

RoLPH, G. M. Something about Sugar — Its History, Growth, Manufac- 
ture and Distribution. San Francisco, 191 7. 

Spencer, G. L. A Hand Book for Cane Manufacturers and Their Chem- 
ists. 5th edition, New York, 1917. 



[Page 71] 



Perry-Estabrook Press, Inc. 
Cambridge, Massachusetts 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS << 



022 265 504 3 




